CHAPTER
5
DISCUSSION
Evaluation
of Hypotheses and Discussion of Results
At the beginning of the methodology
chapter it was explained that the hypotheses of this investigation will be
stated in terms of research hypotheses instead of null hypotheses, as supported
by Agresti and Finlay (1986). This convention will be followed in this
discussion chapter, although it is understood that, technically speaking, the
statistical tests used to analyze the data of this experiment can only provide
evidence for rejecting or not rejecting the null hypotheses, and cannot directly
evaluate the validity of the alternative, or research, hypotheses.
Hypothesis 1: The maha mantra group will show significantly
decreased stress from pretest to posttest compared with the alternate mantra
group and with the control group at the .05 level of significance.
This hypothesis was confirmed by the statistical analysis of the previous
chapter. The maha mantra group decreased stress levels more than both of the
other two groups, and effect sizes for group status on stress from pretest to
posttest, 33% for partiallized values and 25% for observed values, are large
according to Rosenthal (1997).
According to Vedic theory, chanting the maha mantra causes a person to
decrease stress and anxiety (Dasa, 1994). Thus, the results of this study, in
regards to hypothesis 1, support Vedic guna theory.
In behavioral terms, chanting the hare krsna maha mantra may have
served as an effective positive replacement thought for stressful thoughts.
According to Spiegler and Guevremont (1993), a common behavioral technique to
reduce stress is to disrupt distressing thoughts and replace them with a
competing, positive cognition. This stress-reduction technique has been
successful in many environments, for diverse purposes and with several
populations, including traumatology (Berk, 1998; Foa, 1997), rape victims (Foa,
1997), self-esteem development (Joiner & Sawyer, 1992), and post-traumatic
stress disorder (Miller & Basoglu, 1991). According to the Vedas, the sound
vibration of the hare krsna maha mantra can affect the mind to abandon
stressful thoughts. Therefore, the results of this experiment with regard to
hypothesis 1 are consistent with explanations based in behavioral and guna theory.
Hypothesis 2: The maha mantra group will show significantly decreased
depression from pretest to posttest compared with the alternate mantra group and
with the control group at the .05 level of significance.
This hypothesis is supported by the statistical analysis in the previous
chapter. The maha mantra group decreased depression levels more than both of the
other two groups, and effect sizes for group status on depression from pretest
to posttest, 21% for partiallized values and 25% for observed values, are large
according to Rosenthal (1997), and represent a strong association between the
variables.
Srimad-Bhagavatam (Prabhupada, 1976) hypothesizes that the hare krsna
maha mantra affects the mind to abandon depressing thoughts. Results of this
study, therefore, support guna theory in relation to Hypothesis 2.
As described above in relation to stress, behavioral techniques such as
thought stopping and thought replacement are also effectively used to treat
depression (e.g., Albano and Morris, 1998; Freeston, Ladouceur, Provencher, and
Blais, 1995). In such approaches, persons who habitually think depressing
thoughts, such as “I’m worthless”, train themselves to replace these
thoughts with thoughts that are rewarding and supportive of self-esteem. From a
Vedic viewpoint, the sound vibration of the hare krsna maha mantra
provides fulfillment for the mind that takes the place of depressing thoughts.
Therefore, the results of this study in regards to depression are consistent
with guna and behavioral theory.
Hypothesis 3: The maha mantra group will show significantly increased
sattva from pretest to posttest compared with the alternate mantra group and
with the control group at the .05 level of significance.
This hypothesis is supported by the results of this study. The maha
mantra group increased its sattva level significantly more than the
alternate mantra group and more than the control group. Effect sizes for group
status on sattva from pretest to posttest were .23 for partiallized
scores and .18 for observed scores. According to Rosenthal (1997) this indicates
a medium to large effect size and a moderate to strong association between the
variables. The results of this experiment in connection with hypothesis 3 can be
understood in relation to the Vedic assertion that the maha mantra is
predominantly in sattva guna. The alternate mantra, according to the
Vedas, is not in sattva guna.
Hypothesis 4: The maha mantra group will show significantly decreased rajas
from pretest to posttest compared with the alternate mantra group and with the
control group at the .05 level of significance.
This hypothesis is not supported by the statistical analysis of the
previous chapter. No group showed a statistically significant change in rajas
scores from pretest to posttest compared with either of the other groups.
From Vedic theory it can be understood that the formulation of hypothesis
4 may be faulty. As described above, the Vedas suggest that chanting the hare
krsna maha mantra may transform rajasic and tamasic qualities
into sattvic qualities. However, the Vedas also indicate that chanting
the maha mantra will transform tamasic qualities into rajasic
qualities. That is, Vedic teachings describe a progression from tamas to sattva,
with rajas in the middle. Therefore, while some rajasic qualities
are replaced by sattvic qualities, some tamasic qualities are
transformed into rajasic attributes, and therefore the overall level of rajas
is maintained. By continued chanting of the hare krsna maha mantra,
according to the Srimad-Bhagavatam (Prabhupada, 1976), all rajas and
tamas will be replaced by sattva. This study, however, entailed
chanting the maha mantra for only one month, and thus a possible explanation
could be that the full effects of the mantra were not allowed to take place,
resulting in tamasic qualities transforming into rajasic qualities
without sattva becoming prominent. For instance, the indolence of tamas
may convert to the frenetic activity of rajas, before ultimately
transforming into the calm determination of sattva.
Hypothesis 5: The maha mantra group will show significantly decreased
tamas from pretest to posttest compared with the alternate mantra group and
with the control group at the .05 level of significance.
This hypothesis is partially supported by the results of this experiment.
The maha mantra group decreased pretest-posttest tamas scores
significantly more than the control group, though not significantly more than
the alternate mantra group. Effect sizes for group status on pretest-posttest
tamas scores were 21% for partiallized scores and 18% for observed scores.
Effects of this magnitude are medium to large, indicating a moderate to strong
association between the variables (Rosenthal, 1997). Differences between the
alternate and control groups for pretest-posttest tamas values were not
statistically significant.
Tamas is characterized by a lack of determination, regulation and
discipline. Persons predominated by tamas guna have difficulty fulfilling
their responsibilities and gaining control over their life (Prabhupada, 1976).
It may be conjectured that the regulated activity of chanting three japa
rounds every day caused members of the alternate mantra group to reduce their
level of tamas. That is, although the alternate mantra is not composed of
sattvic vibrations, the disciplined act of chanting every day had the
effect of increasing sattva sufficiently for the difference between the
two chanting groups to not be statistically significant.
Secondary
Hypotheses
Hypothesis 6: The maha mantra group will show significantly decreased
stress from pretest to followup compared with the alternate mantra group and
with the control group at the .05 level of significance, though some diminishing
of effects compared with pretest-posttest is expected.
Hypothesis 7: The maha mantra group will show significantly decreased
depression from pretest to followup compared with the alternate mantra group and
with the control group at the .05 significance level, though some diminishing of
effects compared with pretest-posttest is expected.
Hypothesis 8: The maha mantra group will show significantly increased
sattva from pretest to followup compared with the alternate mantra group and
with the control group at the .05 significance level, though some diminishing of
effects compared with pretest-posttest is expected.
Hypothesis 9: The maha mantra group will show significantly decreased
rajas from pretest to followup compared with the alternate mantra group and
with the control group at the .05 level of significance, though some diminishing
of effects compared with pretest-posttest is expected.
Hypothesis 10: The maha mantra group will show significantly decreased
tamas from pretest to followup compared with the alternate mantra group and
with the control group at the .05 significance level, though some diminishing of
effects compared with pretest-posttest is expected.
None of these secondary hypotheses were fully confirmed by the results of
this study, though hypothesis 7 and hypothesis 10 were partially confirmed. For
pretest-followup depression and tamas scores the maha mantra group showed
a statistically significant decrease in depression and tamas compared
with the control group, though not compared with the alternate mantra group. In
none of the pretest-followup comparisons did the alternate mantra group differ
significantly from the control group. For tamas only the observed
difference ANCOVA produced significant effects for group status, with group
status accounting for 11% of the variance, which according to Rosenthal (1997)
represents a moderate association between the variables and a medium effect
size. For pretest-followup depression values effect sizes were 12% for
partiallized scores and 20% for observed scores, representing a medium to large
effect size (Rosenthal).
Vedic theory suggests that when one withdraws from the association of the
hare krsna maha mantra, or any sattvic influence, the effects of
sattva will diminish, and effects of rajas and tamas, such as
stress, lust, greed and depression, will reappear. Therefore the Vedas recommend
that one remain constantly in sattvic association. Pretest-followup
results of this experiment indicate that the effects of one month of chanting
the maha mantra did diminish after a one month followup period in which no
chanting was performed. However, as evidenced by depression and tamas
scores, some effects did remain, though the effect sizes for these variables
were less than the effects for the pretest-posttest period, as predicted by
Vedic theory. It should be noted that the Vedas claim that depression is a
symptom of tamas, and therefore the two pretest-followup variables that
retained significant effects are theorized to be related. Providing evidence for
this relationship is the significant correlation (r= .51; p= .000) between
pretest-followup depression scores and pretest-followup tamas scores.
From a behavioral perspective it can be understood that effects diminish
when positive thoughts are discontinued. Thus, for example, it can be
conjectured that stressful thoughts again became prominent for subjects when
they ceased to chant the hare krsna maha mantra.
Hypothesis 11: Gender will have no effect on any of the dependent
variables at a .05 significance level.
When ANCOVAs resulted in a significant group status effect, gender did
not have a significant effect on the dependent variable. Therefore hypothesis 11
was supported. When group status had a significant effect on the dependent
variable, the non-significant effect sizes associated with gender never had an
effect size greater than 1%. Therefore it can be concluded that gender did not
substantially effect the dependent variables, though including gender as a
controlled variable in this study successfully removed the effects of gender as
an unknown and uncontrolled source of variation, thus adding to the explanatory
strength of the group status results. The correlations of covariates section of
the results and data analysis chapter shows that for the control group gender
did have 5 significant correlations, indicating that gender and the gunas
may not be completely unrelated. In psychometric research on the VPI (Wolf,
1998) it was also found that gender was not completely neutral in relation to
the gunas, with higher sattva scores for females and higher
tamas scores for males.
Hypothesis 12: Age will have no effect on any of the dependent variables
at a .05 significance level.
Age had a significant p value for pretest-posttest stress and depression
scores, though the largest effect size for age among all the ANCOVA analyses was
6%, which was for pretest-posttest partiallized difference scores for stress.
Pearson r for age correlated with pretest-posttest stress difference scores was
-.26 (r2= .07), and r for age correlated with pretest-posttest depression
difference scores was -.25 (r2=
.06). These correlations, along with the significant p values for the F tests
mentioned above, demonstrate that older participants decreased their stress and
depression from pretest to posttest more than younger participants. As described
in the correlations of covariates section of the previous chapter, age did not
significantly correlate with any of the pretest, posttest or followup scores for
any of the three groups for any of the dependent variables. Overall, ANCOVAs
indicate that age did have some effect on some of the variables, contrary to
hypothesis 12, and controlling for age in the statistical analysis increases the
explanatory strength of the group status analyses.
Hypothesis 13: Chanting frequency for the maha mantra group will be
positively correlated, at the .05 significance level, with dependent variables
in the same direction that the maha mantra group is related with the dependent
variables. That is, increased chanting frequency for the maha mantra group will
correlate with increased sattva and decreased stress, depression, rajas
and tamas. Chanting frequency for the alternate mantra group will have no
correlation at the .05 significance level with any of the dependent variables.
Out of the six analyses resulting in significant p values for group
status effects, chanting frequency had significant p values for three of the
analyses. These three were pretest-posttest depression, pretest-posttest
tamas, and pretest-followup depression (for partiallized scores only). For
the observed difference pretest-posttest depression ANCOVA, chanting frequency
had an effect size of 17%, which was the highest of the effect sizes for
chanting frequency. For some analyses chanting frequency had a medium or even
large effect size, but the p value for the F test was not significant. For
instance, for partiallized pretest-posttest stress scores chanting frequency had
an effect size of 8%, and the p value was .581, for observed differences
pretest-followup depression scores chanting frequency had an effect size of 16%,
and the p value was .106, for observed differences pretest-posttest sattva
difference scores chanting frequency had an effect size of 7%, with a p value of
.061, for partiallized pretest-followup differences for sattva chanting
frequency had an effect size of 11% and a p value of .380, and for observed
differences pretest-followup tamas scores chanting frequency had an
effect size of 12% and a p value of .124. These noteworthy effects with
non-significant p values suggest that a study with a larger sample size, and
thus greater power, might detect more significant differences with chanting
frequency in relation to the dependent variables.
Also, in some cases chanting frequency had a significant p value, though
the effects of group status were not significant. For example, the observed
differences pretest-followup stress analysis resulted in an effect size of 16%
for chanting frequency, with a p value of .004, and the p value for chanting
frequency in the pretest-followup partiallized differences rajas scores
was .048. When group status did not have a significant effect on the dependent
variable, thorough analysis of effects of chanting frequency were not
particularly relevant, even if chanting frequency had a significant p value,
because it is not especially consequential to discuss effects of chanting
frequency if the overall effects of chanting were found to be nonsignificant.
Table 11 shows that chanting frequency significantly correlated with
several of the alternate group dependent variable scores, and with none of the
maha mantra group dependent variables. This means that in the ANCOVAs with a
significant chanting frequency p value, the effects were more prominent for the
alternate group than for the maha mantra group, contrary to hypothesis 13.
Apparently there was some placebo effect in this study, as dependent variables
were effected by changes in chanting frequency of the alternate mantra group,
although, as described in the section in this chapter entitled major hypotheses,
in no case did the alternate and control groups significantly differ in
pretest-posttest or pretest-followup differences in dependent variables.
According to Vedic theory, increased chanting of the hare krsna maha
mantra will correspond to increased effects of the mantra (Prabhupada,
1976). In this experiment all subjects were instructed to chant three rounds of japa
every day, and the actual range of chanting frequency for the maha mantra group
was 2.46 to 3.00. It is suggested that this range is not adequate to obtain a
true picture of the effects of chanting frequency. A range of 1 round per day to
30 rounds per day, with groups instructed to chant different numbers of rounds
per day than other groups, would be
more appropriate for a study of chanting frequency effects.
Also, it should be noted that although all of the groups began with equal
numbers of subjects, the maha mantra group retained 24 members, while the other
two groups each retained 19 members. Cook and Campbell (1979) note that when the
treatment group keeps more members than other groups, it may be regarded as
evidence of the hypothesis that the treatment is effective. That is, the
comparative group dropout results of this study suggest that participants
derived more value from the maha mantra, and therefore they were more likely to
remain in the maha mantra group compared with the other two groups.
Limitations
of the Study
Rosenthal (1997) explains that generalizability of a study is the degree
to which similar findings will be observed in a different context or setting. As
this study did not employ random sampling, the sampling method of the experiment
does not allow statistical generalization to any population other than the 62
subjects who participated in the study. However, generalizability of a study
also contains a qualitative component, requiring the researcher or practitioner
to apply his/her expertise in an area to determine the degree of similarity of
contexts. Therefore, a practitioner or researcher desiring to assess this study
for applicability can evaluate the similarity of the participants and setting of
this study to the context in which s/he wishes to apply the techniques and
findings. Generalizability of course is enhanced or reduced by replication
studies, none of which have yet been performed for the hare krsna maha mantra.
Another deficiency of this study in regards to generalizability is
reactive effects of the pretest, which was not resolved with the experimental
design utilized in this investigation. The effects of the pretest may have
affected subjects in such a way that they were no longer representative of any
larger population, and thus the effects of the interventions may only apply to
those who completed such a pretest, and not to others (Royse, 1995).
Bracht and Glass (1968) explain that external validity, or
generalizability, of a design can be divided into two categories- population
validity and ecological validity. Population validity refers to the ability to
make inferential leaps to a larger population, and the major threat in this
experiment to population validity is lack of random sampling, and another threat
is reactivity to pretests. Bracht and Glass describe novelty effects as an
additional threat to population validity, and this may be a defect in the
representativeness of this experiment. Specifically, the effects of chanting may
have to some degree been caused by the novelty of the experience. If this is the
case, then after the novelty effect wears off, the effects of the chanting
process can be expected to diminish. Thus, the results may not apply to a
general population, but only to the studied population in which the novelty
effects were active.
Ecological validity refers to the degree to which the experimental effect
is independent of the experimental environment. In this study, the Hawthorne
effect, referring to the subjects’ knowledge that they were participating in
an experiment, may have been active, thus decreasing the generalizability of the
findings (Bracht and Glass, 1968).
Bracht and Glass (1968) also describe experimenter effects as a threat to
ecological validity. In this study the researchers were aware of the group
status of each participant, and therefore experimenter effects must be
considered. That is, the researchers were part of the setting of the experiment,
and it is possible that different results would be achieved with different
researchers, and this was a shortcoming in the ecological validity of the study.
Specifically, the researchers may have behaved one way towards members of one
group, and differently towards members of another group, thereby causing effects
that are not directly attributable to any of the independent variables in the
design. The design of this study attempted to control for experimenter effects
by standardizing the training of each researcher to ensure consistent
presentation to all members of each group of subjects.
While acknowledging the threat of experimenter effects to ecological
validity, overemphasis on the effectiveness of double-blind studies must also be
avoided. In the field of medical research, for instance, there is evidence that
a physician’s beliefs can alter the results of double-blind studies. For
example, Dossey (1993) describes double-blind studies of the use of vitamin E in
treating angina pectoris. In a double-blind study involving an enthusiastic
doctor who believed in vitamin E the treatment was found to be more effective
than a placebo, while two double-blind studies conducted by skeptics showed no
effect. Many analyses of drug research development show similar results, with
enthusiasts arriving at opposite conclusions to skeptics, both using
double-blind studies. Regarding the drug meprobamate, Dossey writes “Overall,
therefore, three of the four meprobamate studies suggested strongly that the
effectiveness of the drug over the placebo was correlated with the physician’s
attitudes and beliefs toward it, and that the beliefs of the prescribing
physician can somehow penetrate the double-blind conditions of the experiment
and shape the action of the drug” (p. 136). After reviewing many double-blind
studies in the fields of medicine, neuropsychopharmacology, and psychiatry,
Solfvin (1984) concluded “Studies with a wide variety of treatments have
conclusively affirmed that the administering physician or researcher is not
independent of the results in double-blind treatment effectiveness studies...As
a general rule, the double-blind cannot any longer be assumed to guarantee the
exclusion of the nonspecific effects of the treatment, especially when the
actual treatment has a weak or variable effect.” (p. 56). Still, double-blind
replication studies conducted by researchers with a different world view than
this author will surely add valuable information to the body of literature on
the hare krsna maha mantra.
Another drawback to this investigation is that it did not involve a
clinical sample. Therefore, practical significance of the statistically
significant findings is difficult to determine. For instance, if the hare
krsna maha mantra was tested with persons diagnosed with anxiety disorders
or depressive disorders, then the results would indicate whether subjects
improved sufficiently to tangibly enhance daily functioning, and whether the
intervention effectively impacted the disorder. Lacking a clinical sample,
interpretation of clinical or practical significance is limited to analysis of
the reported effect sizes, and cannot be directly generalized to clinical
settings.
When considering these shortcomings in the generalizability of the study,
there should also be consideration of Mook’s (1983) contention that
generalizability is often overemphasized, and that it is important to realize
that generalizability is sometimes not the prime intent of the experiment. Mook
points out that important phenomena such as biofeedback could never have been
discovered by sampling or mimicking natural settings, but only through
laboratory experiments with a very controlled setting. Applying this idea to the
current investigation, the fact that the study indicates that chanting the hare
krsna maha mantra worked to some degree with the tested population has
significance in itself, despite the lack of formal generalizability inherent in
the design.
Royse (1995) explains that internal validity of a design assesses whether
an intervention was truly responsible for the observed differences in the
experimental group. Experimenter effects, described above in regards to
ecological validity, were also an internal validity shortcoming of this study.
That is, it is unclear to what extent the design detected the effects of the
maha mantra on the dependent variables, or the effects of the researchers’
influence on the subjects.
Though the random assignment of this study addressed some threats to
internal validity, such as history and maturation, other threats, such as
diffusion and resentful demoralization of respondents receiving less desirable
treatments, were not resolved by random assignment. Though the study was
designed so that researchers met individually with subjects, rather than in a
large group, there were still a few roommate pairs, and they may have
communicated with each other about effects they were experiencing, thus creating
the shortcoming of diffusion. Also, it is possible that some subjects felt
disappointed that they were not in a particular group, and the dependent
measures may have assessed this disappointment, which compromises the validity
of the study. Additionally, though the selection threat to internal validity is
usually not a factor in studies utilizing random assignment, analysis of the
pretest data of this study indicates that randomization may have been
ineffective in creating group equality. Therefore it is possible that there were
different kinds of people in the groups, which makes the design more like a
quasi-experimental design rather than an experimental design, though the
statistical procedures applied in the previous chapter are applicable to
quasi-experimental designs. Related to selection, there may be other threats to
the internal validity of this study, such as interactive effects of selection
and history, and selection and maturation (Cook & Campbell, 1979).
With regards to procedures for random assignment, it should be noted that
randomization was performed before pretest. Twelve subjects left the study after
random assignment and before the pretest was administered. These 12 were not
equally divided between the groups. Alternatively, randomization could have been
performed after pretest, to ensure equal numbers of subjects in each group at
the beginning of intervention. Logistical considerations did not allow
randomization after pretest in this study. Specifically, time constraints
related to schedules of the research team and of many of the subjects who were
university students, prevented the scheduling of an additional meeting after
pretest specifically for introduction of the intervention. Therefore,
randomization had to be performed before pretest, and thus the pretest meeting
also served as the first day of the intervention. This ordering of random
assignment before pretest may be regarded as a procedural shortcoming and could
be related to pretest group inequalities.
Though setting factors generally relate to external validity, there is a
setting consideration of this study that is connected with internal validity.
Meetings between researchers and subjects were sometimes held in a public place,
such as the main plaza on the university campus, and sometimes in the home of
the subject or the office of the researcher, depending on practicality and
convenience of the research team member and subject. The salient point is that
meeting place was not controlled in this study, and all three research team
members noted that subjects seemed to respond best when the meeting was held in
their home, and subjects seemed least comfortable when meetings were held in
public. Thus, effects of meeting place may not be equally distributed across
groups.
The factors of the timing of random assignment and uncontrolled settings
may be related to pretest inequalities that were found in four of eight
variables, including four of five of the dependent variables. Also, these
pretest inequalities may indicate that unknown, uncontrolled variables affected
pretest scores. This is a shortcoming of the study, though the ANCOVA
statistical procedure, especially when pretest scores are partiallized, tends to
neutralize the effects of pretest inequalities.
Concerning internal validity, it should be noted that the alternate
mantra had the same syllabic pattern as the maha mantra. This controlled
for the effects of syllabic pattern, and helped to isolate the effects of the
mantras themselves.
Power of the
statistical tests used in this study was sufficient to detect differences that
supported four out of five of the major hypotheses, as well as some of the
secondary hypotheses. However, analyses in this study that were found
nonsignificant at the .05 level include p values such as .096, .061, .058, .056,
.054, .053, and even .051. Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that greater
power, achieved by a larger sample size (Orme and Combs-Orme, 1986), may have
detected a greater number of significant differences than were found in this
experiment. For instance, the maha mantra group decreased pretest-posttest tamas
scores significantly more than the control group, though not significantly more
than the alternate mantra group, though the decrease in tamas scores for
the maha mantra group was greater than the decrease for the alternate mantra
group (see Table 25). This lack of a significant finding may be due to an
inadequate sample size and consequent deficiency in statistical power. With
regards to chanting frequency, the discussion of hypothesis 13 earlier in this
chapter reports that for some analyses chanting frequency had a medium or even
large effect size (Rosenthal, 1997), although the p value was not significant.
This suggests that with a larger sample size there may have been a greater
number of significant relationships discovered between chanting frequency and
dependent variables.
Clinical
Significance and Application of Techniques
Since this experiment did not involve a clinical sample, a main call to
action of the findings is to research the hare krsna mantra in a clinical
setting, such as with a sample of clients experiencing depressive,
stress-related or anxiety-based disorders. Clinical studies have not yet been
conducted with the maha mantra, though there are a few practitioners, such as
the author, with some experience in using the maha mantra with clients.
If a practitioner wishes to try the technique of chanting the hare
krsna maha mantra with a client, it is important that the client feels
comfortable with the method and voluntarily agrees to practice the mantra. The
practitioner can demonstrate how to chant the maha mantra according to the
description provided in the procedures section of the methodology chapter. As
many other interventions of Eastern origin have been incorporated into the
mental health professions, the hare krsna maha mantra can also be
presented as potentially effective therapy, without reference to sectarian
conceptions.
Applications of the hare krsna maha mantra can include the same
target problems that many other yoga, mantra and meditational techniques have
been effective in treating. This japa study specifically dealt with
stress and depression, both of which have been treated with various
Eastern-style techniques. The spiritual intervention articles section of chapter
two describes several studies reporting effective use of yoga, mantras and
meditation in the treatment of stress and depression. Janowiak and Hackman
(1994) found that meditation is effective in relieving stress, and Kaye (1985)
successfully used mantra therapy to relieve depression and anxiety in an elderly
population. Pearl and Carlozzi (1994) and Miller, Fletcher, and Kabat-Zinn
(1995) found that Eastern-style interventions are effective in reducing stress,
and Kutz et al. (1985) discovered that meditational techniques are effective as
an adjunct to psychotherapy in relieving depression and anxiety. The literature
reviews of Delmonte (1983) and Delmonte and Kenny (1985) concluded that mantras
and meditation are effective in reducing anxiety and drug abuse, and also in
improving physiological indicators. Though Delmonte found that a mock mantra is
as effective as any other mantra, the results of this japa study indicate
that the maha mantra produces desirable effects that an alternate, or mock
mantra does not generate.
Many other studies also support the use of Eastern-style interventions in
treating stress and depression, and, combined with the findings of this study,
they support the experimental use of the hare krsna maha mantra for
alleviating stress and depression. Wardlaw (1994) effectively used yoga
techniques to treat stress-related symptoms such as bruxism. Khumar, Kaur, and
Kaur (1993) successfully treated clinically depressed college students with yoga
methods. Joseph (1998) asserts that throughout the mental health fields there is
growing interest in yoga techniques as a stress reliever. The results of this
study indicate that the maha mantra is a yogic method that should be tried with
problems related to stress and depression.
Stress is often regarded as the underlying factor in substance abuse and
addictions (Ellis and Corum, 1994), which points to other potential uses for the
maha mantra. Many researchers and practitioners, such as Kremer, Malkin, and
Benshoff (1995), Alexander, Robinson, and Rainforth (1995), Karel (1993, and
Sands (1994), have been successful in using mantras and other yoga techniques in
the prevention and treatment of substance abuse. According to Vedic theory,
substance abuse is indicative of tamas guna, and this study
indicates that the maha mantra decreased the level of tamas guna.
A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada (1976) suggests in the Srimad-Bhagavatam
that chanting the hare krsna maha mantra is specifically effective for
prevention and treatment of drug abuse. Eastern-style interventions have been
efficacious in many other ways also, including development of empathy and
prevention of stress and burnout in mental health professionals (e.g., Karel,
1993; Shapiro, Schwartz, and Bonner, 1998; Keefe, 1996), treatment of anxiety
disorders with a clinical population diagnosed with panic disorder and
generalized anxiety (Kabat-Zinn, Massion, Kristeller, & Peterson, 1992),
treatment of phobias (Snaith, Owens, & Kennedy, 1992), trauma intervention
(Urbanowski & Miller, 1996), treatment of asthma (Lane, 1994), and treatment
of posttraumatic stress disorder (Canda & Phaobtong, 1992).
Vaisnavas, adherents of Vedic culture and philosophy, have been chanting
the hare krsna maha mantra and utilizing other techniques described in
the Vedas for many of the above purposes for centuries. Rangaswami (1996)
explains that meditation, mantras and yoga are an integral part of the Indian
system of psychotherapy. Canda and Phaobtong (1992) describe meditational
techniques specifically implemented for treatment of posttraumatic stress
disorder among Buddhist refugees. Similarly, a person experiencing a crisis or
severe anxiety from any source can be guided to chant the hare krsna maha
mantra for alleviation of stress and development of sattvic symptoms,
such as serenity and contentment. Of course, as described above, the counselor
must be confident that this technique is appropriate for the particular client,
and that the client consents to practice the method.
Relevance
to Social Work
Keefe (1996) describes social work applications of Eastern-style
interventions in treating depression, substance abuse, and excessive anxiety.
Further, he asserts that these techniques are potentially important in
development of social work skills in professional training. Canda (1988) claims
that there are many meditative practices that have not yet been applied in
social work. Meditation on the hare krsna maha mantra is one of these
techniques, and social workers with an inclination towards innovation and who
feel comfortable with Eastern-style mantra meditation can apply this technique
to help clients with stress, depression, and related problems.
Social workers are active in many fields, and yoga techniques are
becoming increasingly popular in these fields. For example, medical social
workers can note that Derr, Shaikh, Rosen, and Guadagnimo (1998) surveyed
medical students and found that a majority of the students identified yoga as a
beneficial complementary therapeutic technique. Cormier and Cormier (1997)
describe yoga as an important and effective skill for mental health
professionals utilizing behavioral interventions. Many hospice workers are
trained and educated as social workers, and spirituality has been found to be an
important component in hospice work (Millison, 1995). According to the Vedas,
chanting the maha mantra is a spiritual activity, based in sattva guna,
or suddha sattva. For centuries Vaisnavas have chanted the hare krsna
maha mantra to deal with issues of death and dying. By becoming conversant
in techniques such as chanting the hare krsna maha mantra, social workers
can add a useful tool to their repertoire of skills that can be implemented in
diverse settings with various populations.
Cultural diversity is a key element of the social work profession
(National Association of Social Workers, 1990), and this entails respecting the
world view and practices of cultures different from that of the social worker.
In dealing with psychological issues, social workers should understand that
Western paradigms may not be applicable for explicating and comprehending the
psychology of indigenous peoples (Gergen, Gulerce, Lock, and Misra, 1996).
Laungani (1993), in his examination of differences in cultural perspectives on
stress, emphasized that in India people have been relying on yoga and mantra
techniques to relieve stress long before the development of Western psychology.
Familiarity with these techniques, such as chanting the hare krsna maha
mantra, will help social workers to appreciate and effectively work with
persons from different backgrounds. Also, by incorporating methods from a
different tradition, adherents of that tradition in the West will feel supported
and validated, as individuals and as an ethnic group. Such multicultural
upliftment is an important aspect of the mission of social work (National
Association of Social Workers, 1990).
Though the maha mantra can be applied in a behavioral context, it is,
according to the Vedas, a spiritual approach to psychological and social health.
As described from the beginning of this dissertation, there is a need for social
workers to explore spirituality and spiritually-based interventions more than
they do at present (Canda, 1988). Lloyd (1997) urges social workers to broaden
their perspective to incorporate the spiritual dimension of life, and he
emphasizes that a spiritual perspective is especially important in social work
surrounding issues of death and dying. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders-IV (American Psychiatric Association, 1994) includes spiritual
problems as a focus of clinical attention, and this has raised the awareness of
mental health professionals regarding the importance of considering a person’s
spiritual values in psychosocial development. Among helping professionals social
workers are especially known for considering all dimensions of persons and
problems. Jacobs (1997) concluded that attending to the spirituality of helping
situations invites social workers to expand their personal and professional
boundaries. Considering this, there is clearly benefit for social workers to
learn and teach spiritual techniques such as chanting the hare krsna maha
mantra, when it is compatible with the world view of the client.
Bullis (1996) asserts that, philosophically, both social workers and
spirituality promote common interests and self-respect. Social work and
spiritual professionals have similar goals, such as personal healing and
alleviation of community strife, violence and ignorance. Bullis claims that
spirituality offers social workers a way of transformation for their clients,
and he offers several suggestions for spiritually-based assessment and
interventions in social work practice. He recommends that meditation and prayer
be incorporated in social work interventions, and the hare krsna maha mantra
is a type of meditation and prayer (Goswami, 1977). Bullis writes
“...meditation or deep prayer is a safe, fun, and effective way to access the
spiritual dimensions” (p. 62). Further, he states, “...social work should
abandon the strictly physical cosmology in favor of a post-positive, spiritual
cosmology...the great divorce between social work and spirituality is
inauthentic and unsupportable. Clients who have a desire, articulated or not, to
have their spiritual concerns addressed, deserve to be heard by a competent and
thorough professional” (p. 145, 163).
Suggestions
for Further Research
Bullis (1996) contends that the spiritual dimension is not well
understood in the social work profession, and that much research needs to be
conducted on spiritual assessment and intervention. Considering this, further
research can be conducted on the VPI (Wolf, 1998) as a tool for assessment and
evaluation in social work, and on the maha mantra as an intervention.
Path analysis is a statistical method for determining causal
relationships (Agresti & Finlay, 1986), and this technique could be applied
to research on the VPI (Wolf, 1998) and the maha mantra. Whereas the current
study indicates several relationships of association between variables, path
analysis could examine more deeply whether these relationships are causal. Even
with the data of this maha mantra study path analysis could be applied in order
to glean further information. For instance, each guna subscale of the VPI
is composed of several attributes, with each attribute derived from the
Bhagavad-gita (Prabhupada, 1972) and presented as an item or items on the
subscale. The sattva subscale, for example, contains items on
satisfaction, preferred foods, view towards violence, cleanliness, spirituality,
intelligence, willpower, verbal gentleness, self-control, and dutifulness.
Responses on each item could be averaged and causal relationships with dependent
variables could be assessed through path analysis. This could potentially reveal
much useful information about the detailed effects of the maha mantra, and also
about the components of the VPI subscales. Path analysis involves explicitly
defining the presumed causal relationships, and this will necessitate the
researcher delving further into Vedic theory to ascertain hypothetical
relationships. As an example, a fairly intricate theoretical relationship
between the three gunas is described above in the discussion on
hypothesis 4. This relationship can be tested with the VPI (Wolf) and path
analysis.
Nugent (1996) describes the integration of single-system design and
group-comparison methods using the Hierarchical Linear Models (HLM) analytical
method. HLM allows the researcher to aggregate data from single-case and group
designs, thereby minimizing, to some extent, the drawbacks of both approaches.
With single-case experiments, for instance, it is generally difficult to analyze
data for purposes of generalizability, due to lack of effective statistical
methods that can be used with a small number of subjects. With group designs
there are usually a very small number of data points for each subject, and
therefore much information about each individual subject is lost. Thus, the
dynamic nature of subject responses often goes unnoticed with group designs. In
this dissertation both a single-system design and a group design examining the
maha mantra are described. Consequently, the data from these experiments may be
ideally suited for HLM.
Future hare krsna maha mantra japa studies can contain increased
rigor, including elements such as a double-blind design, better control of
location for meetings between researchers and subjects, a greater range for
chanting frequency built into the design of the experiment, a clinical sample,
and a larger sample size. Also, the alternate group can receive a treatment that
has been proven effective, and then the researcher could assess whether the maha
mantra is more effective in treating the target dependent variable than the
other intervention. Japa studies can be performed in various settings,
with various populations, and tested with different target variables. For
instance, from guna theory many dependent variables, such as anger
control and relationship satisfaction, can be incorporated into a maha mantra
study. Future studies can also experiment with different time periods for the
intervention, such as one week, eight weeks, or twelve weeks. In this way, the
applicability and effectiveness of this technique can be evaluated across
several dimensions.
Additionally, future studies can incorporate greater control for the
factor of past experience of subjects with chanting and related techniques. As
described in the sampling section of the methodology chapter, the initial phone
conversation with each subject included a question concerning whether they had
prior experience with chanting, biofeedback, meditation, or other yoga
techniques. Answers to this question were used to create two blocks, “past
experience” and “no past experience”, for the process of random
assignment. These blocks, however, controlled for the variable of past
experienced based on a yes or no question, without differentiating between
length or intensity of experience. Future studies on the maha mantra can
include, for instance, a group with experience chanting the maha mantra, a group
with experience chanting a different mantra, a group with silent meditation
experience, and a group with biofeedback experience. In this way, differential
effects of the maha mantra can be more precisely analyzed.
In the Vedas, chanting the hare krsna maha mantra is described
more as a component of a spiritual lifestyle than as a therapeutic intervention.
All aspects of this lifestyle are based on guna theory, and thus many
aspects of the Vedic lifestyle can be assessed by the experimental method. With
regards to further examination of the maha mantra, future studies can
incorporate a group that continues to chant japa, without discontinuation at the
end of an intervention period. As described earlier in this chapter with regards
to hypotheses 6-10, effects of the maha mantra diminished during the followup
period. In Vedic culture, many people daily chant a fixed number of japa rounds
of the hare krsna maha mantra. Persons who have been regularly chanting
in this way for years, as well as persons who have recently begun regular
chanting, can be compared with chanters who cease chanting after a
pre-determined time period, and with a control group, an alternate mantra group,
as well as with alternate therapy groups. Alternate therapy groups would involve
an intervention that has already been shown to be effective in addressing the
dependent variable. For instance, the maha mantra could be compared with an
established cognitive-behavioral therapy for relieving stress.
Many other aspects of a Vedic lifestyle could also be researched. For
example, the Vedas explain that each time period of the day has predominant
modes. The hour before sunrise, for instance, is called the brahma-muhurta,
and is predominated by sattva guna, according to Vedic descriptions
(Prabhupada, 1976). Therefore, one who chants the maha mantra at this time is
predicted to achieve greater benefit, in terms of any of the dependent variables
connected with increased sattva, such as reduction of stress and
depression, compared with one who chants at a different time of the day. A study
could be designed incorporating this aspect of Vedic guna theory.
As a final example, the Vedas assert that there is great benefit in
eating prasadam, which is food that is prepared according to certain
principles and is described in the Vedas to be completely in the mode of
goodness, or sattva. Krsna indicates in the Bhagavad-gita (Prabhupada,
1972) that all foods are situated in the modes of nature, and to develop sattvic
qualities one should eat sattvic foods, such as prasadam. Prasadam
is vegetarian. Thus, a design could be formulated with a meat-eating group, a
vegetarian non-prasadam group, a prasadam group, and a prasadam
group that also chants a few rounds per day of the maha mantra. In this way guna
theory and Vedic practices can be further tested.